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- The first bridge ever built was probably just a tree trunk
- placed across a stream. By the time of the ancient Romans, two
- thousand years ago, all the basic principles of bridge design
- were already known to engineers. In the past two centuries,
- however, new materials and techniques have made possible the
- construction of the most spectacular bridges in history. Many of
- them, in fact, are considered to be engineering marvels. San
- Francisco's Golden Gate Bridge is one of the world's most
- beautiful, and the Humber Bridge, in England, has the longest
- span (1410 metres) of any bridge in the world.
-
- A single beam spanning a gap and resting on firm supports at
- both ends is by far the simplest type of bridge. It is called a
- beam bridge. Since the distance that a single beam can span is
- relatively short, this type of bridge is not suitable for very
- wide gaps unless additional supports (piers) can be provided.
- For this reason, a beam bridge cannot be built over a space that
- is very wide and deep.
-
- A loaded beam bridge is subject to two forces which place it
- under stress. The upper part of the beam is under compression,
- and the lower part is under tension. (See figures 3, 4 and 5.)
- Wood, stone and brick have a certain degree of resistance to
- these forces, but concrete and steel have even more and are
- therefore preferred by modern bridge builders. Any beam, of
- whatever material, can be strengthened by truss supports.
- Trusses are triangular frames which can be attached to a beam to
- keep it straight. Triangular frames are structurally very strong
- because, unlike rectangular structures, they cannot be pushed
- out of shape.
-
- A few variants of the basic beam bridge should be mentioned
- here. First of all, there is the pontoon bridge, which consists
- of a roadway laid over a series of hollow, floating vessels
- (pontoons). Such bridges can be constructed very quickly and are
- therefore extremely practical from a military point of view.
- Secondly, there are three kinds of movable beam bridges which
- lift or swing open to allow the passage of boats or ships
- underneath: (1) The vertical lift bridge has a roadway which is
- usually kept in a horizontal position, but is raised out of the
- way of passing ships. (2) The bascule bridge raises its roadway
- into a nearly vertical position from one end. (The double-leaf
- bascule bridge is split in the middle and raised from both
- ends.) (3) The pivot, or swing bridge, has a roadway which
- pivots on a central pier and swings into a position parallel to
- river traffic. All of these movable bridges are controlled by
- electric motors.
-
- The second basic type of bridge is the cantilever bridge. A
- cantilever is a projecting beam supported only at one end. The
- earliest bridge builders sometimes had to span rivers that were
- too wide for the longest available beam and too deep for
- additional piers, so they used three beams: two of them were
- firmly anchored to the two sides of the river so that they
- projected out towards each other. The third beam was then laid
- over the gap separating the first two. Modern cantilever bridges
- are applications of the same principle; two arms made of a
- series of steel trusses extend out from heavy concrete piers and
- support a section between them.
-
- The third type of bridge, the arch bridge, was probably first
- built by the ancient Romans. The simplest arch bridge consists
- of only two stones or beams that span a gap and wedge against
- each other in such a way that neither of them can fall. Ancient
- bridge builders soon discovered how to apply this principle to
- more than two stones. Most stone arch bridges were supported at
- each base by heavy piers. Arch bridges are still common, but
- nowadays they are made of steel and are capable of spanning much
- greater distances than the old stone arch bridges. Steel arch
- bridges may carry their roadway either above or below the arch.
-
- Suspension bridges, our fourth basic type, were probably first
- used in jungles or mountainous areas. A simple walkway was
- suspended from two ropes or vines stretched over a river or
- valley. Modern suspension bridges are made of concrete and
- steel, and they are considerably larger and more complicated
- than primitive ones. Steel cables stretched between massive
- towers are now used to support the deck, which may carry a
- sidewalk, a railroad track or a multi-lane freeway.
-
- Suspension bridges tend to wave, or oscillate. These
- oscillations may be caused by the rhythm of loads crossing the
- bridge, or by storm winds. Several of the first suspension
- bridges collapsed not long after they were built. Later,
- engineers learned to streamline the decks and add truss supports
- to them.
-
- Each of these types of bridge presents special construction
- problems, but the techniques and materials of modern engineering
- make it possible to span almost any distance across any kind of
- land or waterway.
-